Communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Communication (from Latin
commūnicāre, meaning "to share"
[1]) is the act of conveying intended
meanings from one
entity or
group to another through the use of mutually understood
signs and
semiotic rules.
The basic steps of communication are:
- The forming of communicative intent.
- Message composition.
- Message encoding and decoding.
- Transmission of the encoded message as a sequence of signals using a specific channel or medium.
- Reception of signals.
- Reconstruction of the original message.
- Interpretation and making sense of the reconstructed message.
The study of communication can be divided into:
The channel of communication can be visual, auditory, tactile (such as in
Braille) and
haptic,
olfactory,
Kinesics, electromagnetic, or biochemical. Human communication is unique for its extensive use of
abstract language.
Nonverbal
Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying meaning in the form of non-word messages. Examples of nonverbal communication include
haptic communication,
chronemic communication,
gestures,
body language,
facial expressions,
eye contact,
and how one dresses. Nonverbal communication also relates to intent of a
message. Examples of intent are voluntary, intentional movements like
shaking a hand or winking, as well as involuntary, such as sweating.
[2] Speech also contains nonverbal elements known as
paralanguage, e.g.
rhythm,
intonation,
tempo, and
stress.
There may even be a pheromone component. Research has shown that up to
55% of human communication may occur through non-verbal facial
expressions, and a further 38% through para-language.
[3]
It affects communication most at the subconscious level and establishes
trust. Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as
handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words and the use of
emoticons to convey emotion.
Nonverbal communication demonstrates one of Wazlawick's laws: you
cannot not communicate. Once proximity has formed awareness, living
creatures begin interpreting any signals received.
[4]
Some of the functions of nonverbal communication in humans are to
complement and illustrate, to reinforce and emphasize, to replace and
substitute, to control and regulate, and to contradict the denotative
message.
Verbal
Effective verbal or spoken communication is dependent on a number of
factors and cannot be fully isolated from other important interpersonal
skills such as non-verbal communication, listening skills and
clarification. Human
language can be defined as a
system of
symbols (sometimes known as
lexemes) and the
grammars (
rules) by which the symbols are manipulated. The word "language" also refers to common properties of languages.
Language learning normally occurs most intensively during human childhood. Most of the thousands of human languages use patterns of
sound or
gesture
for symbols which enable communication with others around them.
Languages tend to share certain properties, although there are
exceptions. There is
no defined line between a language and a
dialect.
Constructed languages such as
Esperanto,
programming languages,
and various mathematical formalism is not necessarily restricted to the
properties shared by human languages. Communication is a two-way
process not merely one way.
An Effective Communication Process*:
- Use standard terminology when communicating information.
- Request and provide clarification when needed.
- Ensure statements are direct and unambiguous.
- Inform the appropriate individuals when the mission or plans change.
- Communicate all information needed by those individuals or teams external to the team.
- Use nonverbal communication appropriately.
- Use proper order when communicating information.[5]
- Communication can be done through various modes.
- Communication can be termed as conversation
″* for formal English-speaking groups
Written communication and its historical development
Over time the forms of and ideas about communication have evolved
through the continuing progression of technology. Advances include
communications psychology and media psychology, an emerging field of
study.
The progression of written communication can be divided into three "information communication revolutions":
[6]
- Written communication first emerged through the use of pictographs. The pictograms
were made in stone, hence written communication was not yet mobile.
Pictograms began to develop standardized and simplified forms.
- The next step occurred when writing began to appear on paper, papyrus, clay, wax, and other media with common shared writing systems, leading to adaptable alphabets. Communication became mobile.
- The final stage is characterized by the transfer of information through controlled waves of electromagnetic radiation (i.e., radio, microwave, infrared) and other electronic signals.
Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and
conveyed in an attempt to create shared understanding. Gregory Bateson
called it "the replication of tautologies in the universe.
[7] This process, which requires a vast repertoire of skills in
interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, gestures, and evaluating enables
collaboration and
cooperation.
[8]
Misunderstandings can be anticipated and solved through formulations,
questions and answers, paraphrasing, examples, and stories of strategic
talk. Written communication can be clarified by planning follow-up
talks on critical written communication as part of the everyday way of
doing business. A few minutes spent talking in the present will save
valuable time later by avoiding misunderstandings in advance. A frequent
method for this purpose is reiterating what one heard in one's own
words and asking the other person if that really was what was meant
(paraphrasing).
[9]
Business
Business communication is used for a wide variety of activities
including, but not limited to: strategic communications planning, media
relations, public relations (which can include social media, broadcast
and written communications, and more), brand management, reputation
management, speech-writing, customer-client relations, and
internal/employee communications.
Companies with limited resources may choose to engage in only a few
of these activities, while larger organizations may employ a full
spectrum of communications. Since it is difficult to develop such a
broad range of skills, communications professionals often specialize in
one or two of these areas but usually have at least a working knowledge
of most of them. By far, the most important qualifications
communications professionals can possess are excellent writing ability,
good 'people' skills, and the capacity to think critically and
strategically.
Family
Family communication is the study of the communication perspective in
a broadly defined family, with intimacy and trusting relationship.
[10]
The main goal of family communication is to understand the interactions
of family and the pattern of behaviors of family members in different
circumstances. Open and honest communication creates an atmosphere that
allows family members to express their differences as well as love and
admiration for one another.It also helps to understand the feelings of
one another.
Family communication study looks at topics such as family rules,
family roles or family dialectics and how those factors could affect the
communication between family members. Researchers develop theories to
understand communication behaviors. Family communication study also digs
deep into certain time periods of family life such as marriage,
parenthood or divorce and how communication stands in those situations.
It is important for family members to understand communication as a
trusted way which leads to a well constructed family.
Interpersonal
In simple terms, interpersonal communication is the communication
between one person and another (or others). It is often referred to as
face-to-face communication between two (or more) people. Both verbal and
nonverbal communication, or
body language,
play a part in how one person understands another. In verbal
interpersonal communication there are two types of messages being sent: a
content message and a relational message. Content messages are messages
about the topic at hand and relational messages are messages about the
relationship itself.
[11] This means that relational messages come across in
how
one says something and it demonstrates a person’s feelings, whether
positive or negative, towards the individual they are talking to,
indicating not only how they feel about the topic at hand, but also how
they feel about their relationship with the other individual.
[11]
When texting or posting something on social media the relational
message is lost and can cause people to misinterpret the message.
Computer-mediated communication
is a largely studied topic for this reason along with many others. In
the field of Interpersonal communication research, a specific model, the
Four-Distances Model of Communication, describes the four main
variables that can generate "relational distance" in interpersonal
communication, as opposed to a sense of "closeness" or in relational
terms. The variables are Role differences, Communication Codes
differences, Value and Ideological differences, and Experiential
differences (personal history differences and differences in personal
emotional history).
[12] The model has been used also to study interpersonal communication problems occurred in space crews inside the
International Space Station,
[13] and in other cases where interpersonal communication played a critical role in the outcome of crisis events, as in the
Costa Concordia disaster.
[14][15]
Barriers to effectiveness
Barriers to effective communication can retard or distort the message
and intention of the message being conveyed which may result in failure
of the communication process or an effect that is undesirable. These
include filtering, selective perception, information overload, emotions,
language, silence, communication apprehension, gender differences and
political correctness
[16]
This also includes a lack of expressing "knowledge-appropriate"
communication, which occurs when a person uses ambiguous or complex
legal words, medical jargon, or descriptions of a situation or
environment that is not understood by the recipient.
- Physical barriers- Physical barriers are often due to the
nature of the environment. An example of this is the natural barrier
which exists if staff are located in different buildings or on different
sites. Likewise, poor or outdated equipment, particularly the failure
of management to introduce new technology, may also cause problems.
Staff shortages are another factor which frequently causes communication
difficulties for an organization.
- System design- System design
faults refer to problems with the structures or systems in place in an
organization. Examples might include an organizational structure which
is unclear and therefore makes it confusing to know whom to communicate
with. Other examples could be inefficient or inappropriate information
systems, a lack of supervision or training, and a lack of clarity in
roles and responsibilities which can lead to staff being uncertain about
what is expected of them.
- Attitudinal barriers- Attitudinal barriers come about as a
result of problems with staff in an organization. These may be brought
about, for example, by such factors as poor management, lack of
consultation with employees, personality conflicts which can result in
people delaying or refusing to communicate, the personal attitudes of
individual employees which may be due to lack of motivation or
dissatisfaction at work, brought about by insufficient training to
enable them to carry out particular tasks, or simply resistance to
change due to entrenched attitudes and ideas.[citation needed]
- Ambiguity of words/phrases- Words sounding the same but
having different meaning can convey a different meaning altogether.
Hence the communicator must ensure that the receiver receives the same
meaning. It is better if such words are avoided by using alternatives
whenever possible.
- Individual linguistic ability- The use of jargon,
difficult or inappropriate words in communication can prevent the
recipients from understanding the message. Poorly explained or
misunderstood messages can also result in confusion. However, research
in communication has shown that confusion can lend legitimacy to
research when persuasion fails.[17][18]
- Physiological barriers- These may result from individuals'
personal discomfort, caused—for example—by ill health, poor eyesight or
hearing difficulties.
- Bypassing-These happens when the communicators (sender and
the receiver) do not attach the same symbolic meanings to their words.
It is when the sender is expressing a thought or a word but the receiver
take it in a different meaning. For example- ASAP, Rest room
- Technological multi-tasking and absorbency- With a rapid
increase in technologically-driven communication in the past several
decades, individuals are increasingly faced with condensed communication
in the form of e-mail, text, and social updates. This has, in turn, led
to a notable change in the way younger generations communicate and
perceive their own self-efficacy to communicate and connect with others.
With the ever-constant presence of another "world" in one's pocket,
individuals are multi-tasking both physically and cognitively as
constant reminders of something else happening somewhere else bombard
them. Though perhaps too new of an advancement to yet see long-term
effects, this is a notion currently explored by such figures as Sherry
Turkle.[19]
- Fear of being criticized-This is a major factor that prevents
good communication. If we exercise simple practices to improve our
communication skill, we can become effective communicators. For example,
read an article from the newspaper or collect some news from the
television and present it in front of the mirror. This will not only
boost your confidence, but also improve your language and vocabulary.
Cultural aspects
Cultural differences exist within countries (tribal/regional
differences, dialects etc.), between religious groups and in
organisations or at an organisational level - where companies, teams and
units may have different expectations, norms and idiolects. Families
and family groups may also experience the effect of cultural barriers to
communication within and between different family members or groups.
For example: words, colours and symbols have different meanings in
different cultures. In most parts of the world, nodding your head means
agreement, shaking your head means no, except in some parts of the
world.
[20]
Communication to a great extent is influenced by culture and
cultural variables.
[21][22][23][24] Understanding
cultural aspects of communication
refers to having knowledge of different cultures in order to
communicate effectively with cross culture people. Cultural aspects of
communication are of great relevance in today's world which is now a
global village, thanks to
globalisation.
Cultural aspects of communication are the cultural differences which
influences communication across borders. Impact of cultural differences
on communication components are explained below:
1)
Verbal communication
refers to form of communication which uses spoken and written words for
expressing and transferring views and ideas. Language is the most
important tool of verbal communication and it is the area where cultural
difference play its role. All countries have different
languages and to have a better understanding of different culture it is required to have knowledge of languages of different countries.
2)
Non verbal communication
is a very wide concept and it includes all the other forms of
communication which do not uses written or spoken words. Non verbal
communication takes following forms:
- Paralinguistics are the voice involved in communication other than actual language and involves tones, pitch,
vocal cues etc. It also include sounds from throat and all these are
greatly influenced by cultural differences across borders.
- Proxemics deals with the concept of space
element in communication. Proxemics explains four zones of spaces
namely intimate personal, social and public. This concept differs with
different culture as the permissible space vary in different countries.
- Artifactics studies about the non verbal signals
or communication which emerges from personal accessories such as
dresses or fashion accessories worn and it varies with culture as people
of different countries follow different dressing codes.
- Chronemics
deal with the time aspects of communication and also include importance
given to the time. some issues explaining this conceptpt are pauses,
silences and response lag during an interaction. This aspect of communication is also influenced by cultural differences as it is well known that there is a great difference in the value given by different cultures to time.
- Kinesics mainly deals with the body languages such as postures, gestures, head nods,
leg movements etc. In different countiessame gestures and postures are
used to convey different messages. Sometimes even a particular kinesic
indicating something good in a country may have a negative meaning in
any other culture.
So in order to have an effective communication across world it is
desirable to have a knowledge of cultural variables effecting
communication.
According to Michael Walsh and
Ghil'ad Zuckermann,
Western conversational interaction is typically "dyadic", between two
particular people, where eye contact is important and the speaker
controls the interaction; and "contained" in a relatively short, defined
time frame. However, traditional Aboriginal conversational interaction
is "communal", broadcast to many people, eye contact is not important,
the listener controls the interaction; and "continuous", spread over a
longer, indefinite time frame.
[25][26]
